trainingOptions
Options for training deep learning neural network
Description
returns training options for the optimizer specified by
options
= trainingOptions(solverName
)solverName
. To train a neural network, use the
training options as an input argument to the trainnet
or trainNetwork
function.
returns training options with additional options specified by one or more
name-value arguments.options
= trainingOptions(solverName
,Name=Value
)
Examples
Specify Training Options
Create a set of options for training a network using stochastic gradient descent with momentum. Reduce the learning rate by a factor of 0.2 every 5 epochs. Set the maximum number of epochs for training to 20, and use a mini-batch with 64 observations at each iteration. Turn on the training progress plot.
options = trainingOptions("sgdm", ... LearnRateSchedule="piecewise", ... LearnRateDropFactor=0.2, ... LearnRateDropPeriod=5, ... MaxEpochs=20, ... MiniBatchSize=64, ... Plots="training-progress")
options = TrainingOptionsSGDM with properties: Momentum: 0.9000 InitialLearnRate: 0.0100 MaxEpochs: 20 LearnRateSchedule: 'piecewise' LearnRateDropFactor: 0.2000 LearnRateDropPeriod: 5 MiniBatchSize: 64 Shuffle: 'once' WorkerLoad: [] CheckpointFrequency: 1 CheckpointFrequencyUnit: 'epoch' SequenceLength: 'longest' DispatchInBackground: 0 L2Regularization: 1.0000e-04 GradientThresholdMethod: 'l2norm' GradientThreshold: Inf Verbose: 1 VerboseFrequency: 50 ValidationData: [] ValidationFrequency: 50 ValidationPatience: Inf CheckpointPath: '' ExecutionEnvironment: 'auto' OutputFcn: [] Metrics: [] Plots: 'training-progress' SequencePaddingValue: 0 SequencePaddingDirection: 'right' InputDataFormats: "auto" TargetDataFormats: "auto" ResetInputNormalization: 1 BatchNormalizationStatistics: 'auto' OutputNetwork: 'last-iteration'
Monitor Deep Learning Training Progress
This example shows how to monitor the training process of deep learning networks.
When you train networks for deep learning, it is often useful to monitor the training progress. By plotting various metrics during training, you can learn how the training is progressing. For example, you can determine if and how quickly the network accuracy is improving, and whether the network is starting to overfit the training data.
This example shows how to monitor training progress for networks trained using the trainNetwork
function. For networks trained using a custom training loop, use a trainingProgressMonitor
object to plot metrics during training. For more information, see Monitor Custom Training Loop Progress.
When you set the Plots
training option to "training-progress"
in trainingOptions
and start network training, trainNetwork
creates a figure and displays training metrics at every iteration. Each iteration is an estimation of the gradient and an update of the network parameters. If you specify validation data in trainingOptions
, then the figure shows validation metrics each time trainNetwork
validates the network. The figure plots the following:
Training accuracy — Classification accuracy on each individual mini-batch.
Smoothed training accuracy — Smoothed training accuracy, obtained by applying a smoothing algorithm to the training accuracy. It is less noisy than the unsmoothed accuracy, making it easier to spot trends.
Validation accuracy — Classification accuracy on the entire validation set (specified using
trainingOptions
).Training loss, smoothed training loss, and validation loss — The loss on each mini-batch, its smoothed version, and the loss on the validation set, respectively. If the final layer of your network is a
classificationLayer
, then the loss function is the cross entropy loss. For more information about loss functions for classification and regression problems, see Output Layers.
For regression networks, the figure plots the root mean square error (RMSE) instead of the accuracy.
The figure marks each training Epoch using a shaded background. An epoch is a full pass through the entire data set.
During training, you can stop training and return the current state of the network by clicking the stop button in the top-right corner. For example, you might want to stop training when the accuracy of the network reaches a plateau and it is clear that the accuracy is no longer improving. After you click the stop button, it can take a while for the training to complete. Once training is complete, trainNetwork
returns the trained network.
When training finishes, view the Results showing the finalized validation accuracy and the reason that training finished. If the OutputNetwork
training option is "last-iteration"
(default), the finalized metrics correspond to the last training iteration. If the OutputNetwork
training option is "best-validation-loss"
, the finalized metrics correspond to the iteration with the lowest validation loss. The iteration from which the final validation metrics are calculated is labeled Final in the plots.
If your network contains batch normalization layers, then the final validation metrics can be different to the validation metrics evaluated during training. This is because the mean and variance statistics used for batch normalization can be different after training completes. For example, if the BatchNormalizationStatisics
training option is "population"
, then after training, the software finalizes the batch normalization statistics by passing through the training data once more and uses the resulting mean and variance. If the BatchNormalizationStatisics
training option is "moving"
, then the software approximates the statistics during training using a running estimate and uses the latest values of the statistics.
On the right, view information about the training time and settings. To learn more about training options, see Set Up Parameters and Train Convolutional Neural Network.
To save the training progress plot, click Export Training Plot in the training window. You can save the plot as a PNG, JPEG, TIFF, or PDF file. You can also save the individual plots of loss, accuracy, and root mean squared error using the axes toolbar.
Plot Training Progress During Training
Train a network and plot the training progress during training.
Load the training data, which contains 5000 images of digits. Set aside 1000 of the images for network validation.
[XTrain,YTrain] = digitTrain4DArrayData; idx = randperm(size(XTrain,4),1000); XValidation = XTrain(:,:,:,idx); XTrain(:,:,:,idx) = []; YValidation = YTrain(idx); YTrain(idx) = [];
Construct a network to classify the digit image data.
layers = [ imageInputLayer([28 28 1]) convolution2dLayer(3,8,Padding="same") batchNormalizationLayer reluLayer maxPooling2dLayer(2,Stride=2) convolution2dLayer(3,16,Padding="same") batchNormalizationLayer reluLayer maxPooling2dLayer(2,Stride=2) convolution2dLayer(3,32,Padding="same") batchNormalizationLayer reluLayer fullyConnectedLayer(10) softmaxLayer classificationLayer];
Specify options for network training. To validate the network at regular intervals during training, specify validation data. Choose the ValidationFrequency
value so that the network is validated about once per epoch. To plot training progress during training, set the Plots
training option to "training-progress"
.
options = trainingOptions("sgdm", ... MaxEpochs=8, ... ValidationData={XValidation,YValidation}, ... ValidationFrequency=30, ... Verbose=false, ... Plots="training-progress");
Train the network.
net = trainNetwork(XTrain,YTrain,layers,options);
Input Arguments
solverName
— Solver for training neural network
"sgdm"
| "rmsprop"
| "adam"
| "lbfgs"
Solver for training neural network, specified as one of these values:
"sgdm"
— Stochastic gradient descent with momentum (SGDM). SGDM is a stochastic solver. For additional training options, see Stochastic Solver Options. For more information, see Stochastic Gradient Descent with Momentum."rmsprop"
— Root mean square propagation (RMSProp). RMSProp is a stochastic solver. For additional training options, see Stochastic Solver Options. For more information, see Root Mean Square Propagation."adam"
— Adaptive moment estimation (Adam). Adam is a stochastic solver. For additional training options, see Stochastic Solver Options. For more information, see Adaptive Moment Estimation."lbfgs"
(since R2023b) — Limited-memory Broyden–Fletcher–Goldfarb–Shanno (L-BFGS). L-BFGS is a batch solver. The L-BFGS algorithm is best suited for small networks and data sets that you can process in a single batch. For additional training options, see L-BFGS Solver Options. For more information, see Limited-Memory BFGS. This option supports thetrainnet
function only.
The trainBERTDocumentClassifier
(Text Analytics Toolbox) function supports
the "sgdm"
, "rmsprop"
, and
"adam"
solvers only.
Name-Value Arguments
Specify optional pairs of arguments as
Name1=Value1,...,NameN=ValueN
, where Name
is
the argument name and Value
is the corresponding value.
Name-value arguments must appear after other arguments, but the order of the
pairs does not matter.
Before R2021a, use commas to separate each name and value, and enclose
Name
in quotes.
Example: Plots="training-progress",Metrics="accuracy",Verbose=false
specifies to disable the verbose output and display the training progress in
a plot that also includes the accuracy metric.
Plots
— Plots to display during neural network training
"none"
(default) | "training-progress"
Plots to display during neural network training, specified as one of these values:
"none"
— Do not display plots during training."training-progress"
— Plot training progress.
The contents of the plot depends on the training function that you use.
trainnet
Function
When the
solverName
argument is"sgdm"
,"adam"
, or"rmsprop"
, the plot shows the mini-batch loss, validation loss, training mini-batch and validation metrics specified by theMetrics
option, and additional information about the training progress.When the
solverName
argument is"lbfgs"
, the plot shows the training and validation loss, training and validation metrics specified by theMetrics
option, and additional information about the training progress.
To programmatically open and close the training progress plot after training, use
the show
and close
functions with the second output of the trainnet
function. You
can use the show
function to view the training progress even if
the Plots
training option is specified as
"none"
.
trainNetwork
Function
The plot shows the mini-batch loss and accuracy, validation loss and accuracy, and
additional information about the training progress. For more information about the
trainNetwork
training progress plot, see Monitor Deep Learning Training Progress.
Metrics
— Metrics to track
[]
(default) | character vector | string array | function handle | cell array | metric object
Since R2023b
Metrics to track, specified as a character vector or string scalar of a
built-in metric name, a string array of names, a built-in or custom metric object, a function
handle (@myMetric
), or a cell array of names, metric objects, and
function handles.
Built-in metric name — Specify metrics as a string scalar, character vector, or string array of built-in metric names. Supported values are
"accuracy"
,"fscore"
,"recall"
,"precision"
,"rmse"
, and"auc"
.Built-in metric object — If you need more flexibility, you can use built-in metric objects. The software supports these built-in metric objects:
When you create a built-in metric object, you can specify additional options such as the averaging type and whether the task is single-label or multilabel.
Custom metric function handle — If the metric you need is not a built-in metric, then you can specify custom metrics using a function handle. The function must have the syntax
metric = metricFunction(Y,T)
, whereY
corresponds to the network predictions andT
corresponds to the target responses. For networks with multiple outputs, the syntax must bemetric = metricFunction(Y1,…,YN,T1,…TM)
, whereN
is the number of outputs andM
is the number of targets. For more information, see Define Custom Metric Function.Note
When you have validation data in mini-batches, the software computes the validation metric for each mini-batch and then returns the average of those values. For some metrics, this behavior can result in a different metric value than if you compute the metric using the whole validation set at once. In most cases, the values are similar. To use a custom metric that is not batch-averaged for the validation data, you must create a custom metric object. For more information, see Define Custom Deep Learning Metric Object.
Custom metric object — If you need greater customization, then you can define your own custom metric object. For an example that shows how to create a custom metric, see Define Custom F-Beta Score Metric Object . For general information about creating custom metrics, see Define Custom Deep Learning Metric Object. Specify your custom metric as the
Metrics
option of thetrainingOptions
function.
This option supports the trainnet
and
trainBERTDocumentClassifier
(Text Analytics Toolbox) functions only.
Example: Metrics=["accuracy","fscore"]
Example: Metrics=["accuracy",@myFunction,precisionObj]
Verbose
— Flag to display training progress information
1
(true
) (default) | 0
(false
)
Flag to display training progress information in the
command window, specified as 1
(true
) or 0
(false
).
The content of the verbose output depends on the function that you use for training.
trainnet
Function
When you use the trainnet
function, the verbose output displays a table. The
variables of the table depends on the type of
solver.
For stochastic solvers (SGDM, Adam, and RMSProp), the table contains these variables:
Variable | Description |
---|---|
Iteration | Iteration number |
Epoch | Epoch number |
TimeElapsed | Time elapsed in hours, minutes, and seconds |
LearnRate | Learning rate |
TrainingLoss | Training loss |
ValidationLoss | Validation loss. If you do not specify validation data, then the software does not display this information. |
For the L-BFGS solver, the table contains these variables:
Variable | Description |
---|---|
Iteration | Iteration number |
TimeElapsed | Time elapsed in hours, minutes, and seconds |
TrainingLoss | Training loss |
ValidationLoss | Validation loss. If you do not specify validation data, then the software does not display this information. |
GradientNorm | Norm of the gradients |
StepNorm | Norm of the steps |
If you specify additional metrics in the training options, then
they also appear in the verbose output. For example, if you set the Metrics
training option to "accuracy"
, then the information includes the
TrainingAccuracy
and ValidationAccuracy
variables.
When training stops, the verbose output displays the reason for stopping.
To specify validation data, use the ValidationData
training option.
trainNetwork
Function
When you use the trainNetwork
function, the verbose output displays a table. The variables of the table depends on the type of neural network.
For classification neural networks, the table contains these variables:
Variable | Description |
---|---|
Epoch | Epoch number. An epoch corresponds to a full pass of the data. |
Iteration | Iteration number. An iteration corresponds to a mini-batch. |
Time Elapsed | Time elapsed in hours, minutes, and seconds. |
Mini-batch Accuracy | Classification accuracy on the mini-batch. |
Validation Accuracy | Classification accuracy on the validation data. If you do not specify validation data, then the software does not display this information. |
Mini-batch Loss | Loss on the mini-batch. If the output layer is a
ClassificationOutputLayer object, then the loss is
the cross entropy loss for multi-class classification problems with
mutually exclusive classes. |
Validation Loss | Loss on the validation data. If the output layer is a
ClassificationOutputLayer object, then the loss is
the cross entropy loss for multi-class classification problems with
mutually exclusive classes. If you do not specify validation data, then
the software does not display this information. |
Base Learning Rate | Base learning rate. The software multiplies the learn rate factors of the layers by this value. |
For regression neural networks, the table contains these variables:
Variable | Description |
---|---|
Epoch | Epoch number. An epoch corresponds to a full pass of the data. |
Iteration | Iteration number. An iteration corresponds to a mini-batch. |
Time Elapsed | Time elapsed in hours, minutes, and seconds. |
Mini-batch RMSE | Root-mean-squared-error (RMSE) on the mini-batch. |
Validation RMSE | RMSE on the validation data. If you do not specify validation data, then the software does not display this information. |
Mini-batch Loss | Loss on the mini-batch. If the output layer is a
RegressionOutputLayer object, then the loss is the
half-mean-squared-error. |
Validation Loss | Loss on the validation data. If the output layer is a
RegressionOutputLayer object, then the loss is the
half-mean-squared-error. If you do not specify validation data, then the
software does not display this information. |
Base Learning Rate | Base learning rate. The software multiplies the learn rate factors of the layers by this value. |
When training stops, the verbose output displays the reason for stopping.
To specify validation data, use the ValidationData
training option.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
| logical
VerboseFrequency
— Frequency of verbose printing
50
(default) | positive integer
Frequency of verbose printing, which is the number of iterations between printing to
the command window, specified as a positive integer. This option only has an effect when
the Verbose
training option is 1
(true
).
If you validate the neural network during training, then the software also prints to the command window every time validation occurs.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
OutputFcn
— Output functions
function handle | cell array of function handles
Output functions to call during training, specified as a function handle or cell array of function handles. The software calls the functions once before the start of training, after each iteration, and once when training is complete.
The functions must have the syntax stopFlag = f(info)
, where info
is a structure containing information about the training progress, and stopFlag
is a scalar that indicates to stop training early. If stopFlag
is 1
(true
), then the software stops training. Otherwise, the software continues training.
The fields of the structure info
depend on the training function
that you use.
trainnet
Function
The trainnet
function passes the output function the structure
info
.
For stochastic solvers (SGDM, Adam, and RMSProp), info
contains these
fields:
Field | Description |
---|---|
Epoch | Epoch number |
Iteration | Iteration number |
TimeElapsed | Time since start of training |
LearnRate | Iteration learn rate |
TrainingLoss | Iteration training loss |
ValidationLoss | Validation loss, if specified and evaluated at iteration. |
State | Iteration training state, specified as "start" , "iteration" , or "done" . |
For the L-BFGS solver, info
contains these fields:
Field | Description |
---|---|
Iteration | Iteration number |
TimeElapsed | Time elapsed in hours, minutes, and seconds |
TrainingLoss | Training loss |
ValidationLoss | Validation loss. If you do not specify validation data, then the software does not display this information. |
GradientNorm | Norm of the gradients |
StepNorm | Norm of the steps |
State | Iteration training state, specified as "start" , "iteration" , or "done" . |
If you specify additional metrics in the training options, then
they also appear in the training information. For example, if you set the
Metrics
training option to "accuracy"
, then the
information includes the TrainingAccuracy
and
ValidationAccuracy
fields.
If a field is not calculated or relevant for a certain call to the output functions, then that field contains an empty array.
For an example showing how to use output functions, see Customize Output During Deep Learning Network Training.
trainNetwork
Function
The trainNetwork
function passes the output function the
structure info
that contains these fields:
Field | Description |
---|---|
Epoch | Current epoch number |
Iteration | Current iteration number |
TimeSinceStart | Time in seconds since the start of training |
TrainingLoss | Current mini-batch loss |
ValidationLoss | Loss on the validation data |
BaseLearnRate | Current base learning rate |
TrainingAccuracy
| Accuracy on the current mini-batch (classification neural networks) |
TrainingRMSE | RMSE on the current mini-batch (regression neural networks) |
ValidationAccuracy | Accuracy on the validation data (classification neural networks) |
ValidationRMSE | RMSE on the validation data (regression neural networks) |
State | Current training state, with a possible value of
"start" , "iteration" ,
or "done" . |
If a field is not calculated or relevant for the call to the output functions, then that field contains an empty array.
For an example showing how to use output functions, see Customize Output During Deep Learning Network Training.
Data Types: function_handle
| cell
InputDataFormats
— Description of input data dimensions
"auto"
(default) | string array | cell array of character vectors | character vector
Since R2023b
Description of the input data dimensions, specified as a string array, character vector, or cell array of character vectors.
If InputDataFormats
is "auto"
, then the software uses
the formats expected by the network input. Otherwise, the software uses the specified
formats for the corresponding network input.
A data format is a string of characters, where each character describes the type of the corresponding dimension of the data.
The characters are:
"S"
— Spatial"C"
— Channel"B"
— Batch"T"
— Time"U"
— Unspecified
For example, for an array containing a batch of sequences where the first, second, and
third dimension correspond to channels, observations, and time steps, respectively, you can
specify that it has the format "CBT"
.
You can specify multiple dimensions labeled "S"
or "U"
.
You can use the labels "C"
, "B"
, and
"T"
at most once. The software ignores singleton trailing
"U"
dimensions located after the second dimension.
For more information, see Deep Learning Data Formats.
This option supports the trainnet
function only.
Data Types: char
| string
| cell
TargetDataFormats
— Description of target data dimensions
"auto"
(default) | string array | cell array of character vectors | character vector
Since R2023b
Description of the target data dimensions, specified as one of these values:
"auto"
— If the target data has the same number of dimensions as the input data, then thetrainnet
function uses the format specified byInputDataFormats
. If the target data has a different number of dimensions to the input data, then thetrainnet
function uses the format expected by the loss function.Data formats, specified as a string array, character vector, or cell array of character vectors — The
trainnet
function uses the specified data formats.
A data format is a string of characters, where each character describes the type of the corresponding dimension of the data.
The characters are:
"S"
— Spatial"C"
— Channel"B"
— Batch"T"
— Time"U"
— Unspecified
For example, for an array containing a batch of sequences where the first, second, and
third dimension correspond to channels, observations, and time steps, respectively, you can
specify that it has the format "CBT"
.
You can specify multiple dimensions labeled "S"
or "U"
.
You can use the labels "C"
, "B"
, and
"T"
at most once. The software ignores singleton trailing
"U"
dimensions located after the second dimension.
For more information, see Deep Learning Data Formats.
This option supports the trainnet
function only.
Data Types: char
| string
| cell
MaxEpochs
— Maximum number of epochs
30
(default) | positive integer
Maximum number of epochs (full passes of the data) to use for training, specified as a positive integer.
This option supports stochastic solvers only (when the solverName
argument is "sgdm"
, "adam"
, or
"rmsprop"
).
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
MiniBatchSize
— Size of mini-batch
128
(default) | positive integer
Size of the mini-batch to use for each training iteration, specified as a positive integer. A mini-batch is a subset of the training set that is used to evaluate the gradient of the loss function and update the weights.
If the mini-batch size does not evenly divide the number of training samples, then the software discards the training data that does not fit into the final complete mini-batch of each epoch. If the mini-batch size is smaller then the number of training samples, then the software does not discard any data.
This option supports stochastic solvers only (when the solverName
argument is "sgdm"
, "adam"
, or
"rmsprop"
).
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
Shuffle
— Option for data shuffling
"once"
(default) | "never"
| "every-epoch"
Option for data shuffling, specified as one of these values:
"once"
— Shuffle the training and validation data once before training."never"
— Do not shuffle the data."every-epoch"
— Shuffle the training data before each training epoch, and shuffle the validation data before each neural network validation. If the mini-batch size does not evenly divide the number of training samples, then the software discards the training data that does not fit into the final complete mini-batch of each epoch. To avoid discarding the same data every epoch, set theShuffle
training option to"every-epoch"
.
This option supports stochastic solvers only (when the solverName
argument is "sgdm"
, "adam"
, or
"rmsprop"
).
InitialLearnRate
— Initial learning rate
positive scalar
Initial learning rate used for training, specified as a positive scalar.
If the learning rate is too low, then training can take a long time. If the learning rate is too high, then training might reach a suboptimal result or diverge.
This option supports stochastic solvers only (when the solverName
argument is "sgdm"
, "adam"
, or
"rmsprop"
).
When solverName
is
"sgdm"
, the default value is
0.01
. When
solverName
is
"rmsprop"
or
"adam"
, the default value is
0.001
.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
LearnRateSchedule
— Option for dropping learning rate during training
"none"
(default) | "piecewise"
Option for dropping the learning rate during training, specified as of these values:
"none"
— Keep learning rate constant throughout training."piecewise"
— Update the learning rate periodically by multiplying it by a drop factor. To specify the period, use theLearnRateDropPeriod
training option. To specify the drop factor, use theLearnRateDropFactor
training option.
This option supports stochastic solvers only (when the solverName
argument is "sgdm"
, "adam"
, or
"rmsprop"
).
LearnRateDropPeriod
— Number of epochs for dropping the learning rate
10
(default) | positive integer
Number of epochs for dropping the learning rate, specified
as a positive integer. This option is valid only when the
LearnRateSchedule
training
option is "piecewise"
.
The software multiplies the global learning rate with the
drop factor every time the specified number of epochs
passes. Specify the drop factor using the
LearnRateDropFactor
training
option.
This option supports stochastic solvers only (when the solverName
argument is "sgdm"
, "adam"
, or
"rmsprop"
).
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
LearnRateDropFactor
— Factor for dropping the learning rate
0.1
(default) | scalar from 0
to
1
Factor for dropping the learning rate, specified as a
scalar from 0
to 1
.
This option is valid only when the
LearnRateSchedule
training
option is "piecewise"
.
LearnRateDropFactor
is a
multiplicative factor to apply to the learning rate every
time a certain number of epochs passes. Specify the number
of epochs using the
LearnRateDropPeriod
training
option.
This option supports stochastic solvers only (when the solverName
argument is "sgdm"
, "adam"
, or
"rmsprop"
).
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
Momentum
— Contribution of previous step
0.9
(default) | scalar from 0
to
1
Contribution of the parameter update step of the previous iteration to the current iteration of stochastic gradient descent with momentum, specified as a scalar from 0
to 1
.
A value of 0
means no contribution from the previous step, whereas a value of 1
means maximal contribution from the previous step. The default value works well for most tasks.
This option supports the SGDM solver only (when the solverName
argument is
"sgdm"
).
For more information, see Stochastic Gradient Descent with Momentum.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
GradientDecayFactor
— Decay rate of gradient moving average
0.9
(default) | nonnegative scalar less than 1
Decay rate of gradient moving average for the Adam solver, specified as a nonnegative scalar less than 1
. The gradient decay rate is denoted by β1
in the Adaptive Moment Estimation section.
This option supports the Adam solver only (when the solverName
argument is
"adam"
).
For more information, see Adaptive Moment Estimation.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
SquaredGradientDecayFactor
— Decay rate of squared gradient moving average
nonnegative scalar less than 1
Decay rate of squared gradient moving average for the Adam
and RMSProp solvers, specified as a nonnegative scalar
less than 1
. The squared gradient decay
rate is denoted by
β2
in
[4].
Typical values of the decay rate are 0.9
, 0.99
, and 0.999
, corresponding to averaging lengths of 10
, 100
, and 1000
parameter updates, respectively.
This option supports the Adam and RMSProp solvers only (when the solverName
argument is "adam"
or
"rmsprop"
).
The default value is 0.999
for the Adam
solver. The default value is 0.9
for
the RMSProp solver.
For more information, see Adaptive Moment Estimation and Root Mean Square Propagation.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
Epsilon
— Denominator offset
1e-8
(default) | positive scalar
Denominator offset for Adam and RMSProp solvers, specified as a positive scalar.
The solver adds the offset to the denominator in the neural network parameter updates to avoid division by zero. The default value works well for most tasks.
This option supports the Adam and RMSProp solvers only (when the solverName
argument is "adam"
or
"rmsprop"
).
For more information, see Adaptive Moment Estimation and Root Mean Square Propagation.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
MaxIterations
— Maximum number of iterations
1000
(default) | positive integer
Since R2023b
Maximum number of iterations to use for training, specified as a positive integer.
The L-BFGS solver is a full-batch solver, which means that it processes the entire training set in a single iteration.
This option supports the L-BFGS solver only (when the solverName
argument is
"lbfgs"
).
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
LineSearchMethod
— Method to find suitable learning rate
"weak-wolfe"
(default) | "strong-wolfe"
| "backtracking"
Since R2023b
Method to find suitable learning rate, specified as one of these values:
"weak-wolfe"
— Search for a learning rate that satisfies the weak Wolfe conditions. This method maintains a positive definite approximation of the inverse Hessian matrix."strong-wolfe"
— Search for a learning rate that satisfies the strong Wolfe conditions. This method maintains a positive definite approximation of the inverse Hessian matrix."backtracking"
— Search for a learning rate that satisfies sufficient decrease conditions. This method does not maintain a positive definite approximation of the inverse Hessian matrix.
This option supports the L-BFGS solver only (when the solverName
argument is
"lbfgs"
).
HistorySize
— Number of state updates to store
10 (default) | positive integer
Since R2023b
Number of state updates to store, specified as a positive integer. Values between 3 and 20 suit most tasks.
The L-BFGS algorithm uses a history of gradient calculations to approximate the Hessian matrix recursively. For more information, see Limited-Memory BFGS.
This option supports the L-BFGS solver only (when the solverName
argument is
"lbfgs"
).
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
InitialInverseHessianFactor
— Initial value that characterizes approximate inverse Hessian matrix
1
(default) | positive scalar
Since R2023b
Initial value that characterizes the approximate inverse Hessian matrix, specified as a positive scalar.
To save memory, the L-BFGS algorithm does not store and invert the dense Hessian matrix B. Instead, the algorithm uses the approximation , where m is the history size, the inverse Hessian factor is a scalar, and I is the identity matrix, and stores the scalar inverse Hessian factor only. The algorithm updates the inverse Hessian factor at each step.
The initial inverse hessian factor is the value of .
For more information, see Limited-Memory BFGS.
This option supports the L-BFGS solver only (when the solverName
argument is
"lbfgs"
).
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
MaxNumLineSearchIterations
— Maximum number of line search iterations
20
(default) | positive integer
Since R2023b
Maximum number of line search iterations to determine learning rate, specified as a positive integer.
This option supports the L-BFGS solver only (when the solverName
argument is
"lbfgs"
).
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
GradientTolerance
— Relative gradient tolerance
1e-5
(default) | positive scalar
Since R2023b
Relative gradient tolerance, specified as a positive scalar.
The software stops training when the relative gradient is less than or equal to GradientTolerance
.
This option supports the L-BFGS solver only (when the solverName
argument is
"lbfgs"
).
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
StepTolerance
— Step size tolerance
1e-5
(default) | positive scalar
Since R2023b
Step size tolerance, specified as a positive scalar.
The software stops training when the step taken is less than or equal to StepTolerance
.
This option supports the L-BFGS solver only (when the solverName
argument is
"lbfgs"
).
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
ValidationData
— Data to use for validation during training
[]
(default) | datastore | table | cell array
Data to use for validation during training, specified as []
, a
datastore, a table, or a cell array containing the validation predictors and
responses.
During training, the software calculates the validation accuracy and validation loss on the validation data. To specify the validation frequency, use the ValidationFrequency
training option. You can also use the validation data to stop training automatically when the validation loss stops decreasing. To turn on automatic validation stopping, use the ValidationPatience
training option.
If ValidationData
is []
, then the software does
not validate the neural network during training.
If your neural network has layers that behave differently during prediction than during training (for example, dropout layers), then the validation accuracy can be higher than the training accuracy.
The validation data is shuffled according to the Shuffle
training option. If
Shuffle
is "every-epoch"
, then the
validation data is shuffled before each neural network validation.
The supported formats depend on the training function that you use.
trainnet
Function
Specify the validation data as a datastore or the cell array
{predictors,targets}
, where predictors
contains
the validation predictors and targets
contains the validation targets.
Specify the validation predictors and targets using any of the formats supported by the
trainnet
function.
For more information, see the input arguments of the trainnet
function.
trainNetwork
Function
Specify the validation data as a datastore, table, or the cell array
{predictors,targets}
, where predictors
contains the validation predictors and targets
contains the
validation targets. Specify the validation predictors and targets using any of the
formats supported by the trainNetwork
function.
For more information, see the input arguments of the trainNetwork
function.
trainBERTDocumentClassifier
Function (Text Analytics Toolbox)
Specify the validation data as one of these values:
Cell array
{documents,targets}
, wheredocuments
contains the input documents, andtargets
contains the document labelsTable, where the first variable contains the input documents and the second variable contains the document labels.
For more information, see the input arguments of the trainBERTDocumentClassifier
(Text Analytics Toolbox) function.
ValidationFrequency
— Frequency of neural network validation
50
(default) | positive integer
Frequency of neural network validation in number of iterations, specified as a positive integer.
The ValidationFrequency
value is the number of iterations between
evaluations of validation metrics. To specify validation data, use the ValidationData
training option.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
ValidationPatience
— Patience of validation stopping
Inf
(default) | positive integer
Patience of validation stopping of neural network training, specified as a positive
integer or Inf
.
ValidationPatience
specifies the number of times that the loss on
the validation set can be larger than or equal to the previously smallest loss before
neural network training stops. If ValidationPatience
is
Inf
, then the values of the validation loss do not cause training
to stop early.
The returned neural network depends on the OutputNetwork
training option. To return the neural network with the
lowest validation loss, set the OutputNetwork
training option to
"best-validation-loss"
.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
OutputNetwork
— Neural network to return when training completes
"last-iteration"
(default) | "best-validation-loss"
Neural network to return when training completes, specified as one of the following:
"last-iteration"
– Return the neural network corresponding to the last training iteration."best-validation-loss"
– Return the neural network corresponding to the training iteration with the lowest validation loss. To use this option, you must specify theValidationData
training option.
L2Regularization
— Factor for L2 regularization
0.0001
(default) | nonnegative scalar
Factor for L2 regularization (weight decay), specified as a nonnegative scalar. For more information, see L2 Regularization.
You can specify a multiplier for the L2 regularization for neural network layers with learnable parameters. For more information, see Set Up Parameters in Convolutional and Fully Connected Layers.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
ResetInputNormalization
— Option to reset input layer normalization
1
(true
) (default) | 0
(false
)
Option to reset input layer normalization, specified as one of the following:
1
(true
) — Reset the input layer normalization statistics and recalculate them at training time.0
(false
) — Calculate normalization statistics at training time when they are empty.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
| logical
BatchNormalizationStatistics
— Mode to evaluate statistics in batch normalization layers
"auto"
(default) | "population"
| "moving"
Mode to evaluate the statistics in batch normalization layers, specified as one of the following:
"population"
— Use the population statistics. After training, the software finalizes the statistics by passing through the training data once more and uses the resulting mean and variance."moving"
— Approximate the statistics during training using a running estimate given by update stepswhere and denote the updated mean and variance, respectively, and denote the mean and variance decay values, respectively, and denote the mean and variance of the layer input, respectively, and and denote the latest values of the moving mean and variance values, respectively. After training, the software uses the most recent value of the moving mean and variance statistics. This option supports CPU and single GPU training only.
"auto"
— Use the"moving"
option for thetrainnet
function and the"population"
option for thetrainNetwork
function.
GradientThreshold
— Gradient threshold
Inf
(default) | positive scalar
Gradient threshold, specified as Inf
or a positive scalar. If the
gradient exceeds the value of GradientThreshold
, then the gradient
is clipped according to the GradientThresholdMethod
training
option.
For more information, see Gradient Clipping.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
GradientThresholdMethod
— Gradient threshold method
"l2norm"
(default) | "global-l2norm"
| "absolute-value"
Gradient threshold method used to clip gradient values that exceed the gradient threshold, specified as one of the following:
"l2norm"
— If the L2 norm of the gradient of a learnable parameter is larger thanGradientThreshold
, then scale the gradient so that the L2 norm equalsGradientThreshold
."global-l2norm"
— If the global L2 norm, L, is larger thanGradientThreshold
, then scale all gradients by a factor ofGradientThreshold/
L. The global L2 norm considers all learnable parameters."absolute-value"
— If the absolute value of an individual partial derivative in the gradient of a learnable parameter is larger thanGradientThreshold
, then scale the partial derivative to have magnitude equal toGradientThreshold
and retain the sign of the partial derivative.
For more information, see Gradient Clipping.
SequenceLength
— Option to pad or truncate sequences
"longest"
(default) | "shortest"
| positive integer
Option to pad, truncate, or split input sequences, specified as one of these values:
"longest"
— Pad sequences in each mini-batch to have the same length as the longest sequence. This option does not discard any data, though padding can introduce noise to the neural network."shortest"
— Truncate sequences in each mini-batch to have the same length as the shortest sequence. This option ensures that no padding is added, at the cost of discarding data.Positive integer — For each mini-batch, pad the sequences to the length of the longest sequence in the mini-batch, and then split the sequences into smaller sequences of the specified length. If splitting occurs, then the software creates extra mini-batches. If the specified sequence length does not evenly divide the sequence lengths of the data, then the mini-batches containing the ends those sequences have length shorter than the specified sequence length. Use this option if the full sequences do not fit in memory. Alternatively, try reducing the number of sequences per mini-batch by setting the
MiniBatchSize
option to a lower value.This option supports the
trainNetwork
function only.
To learn more about the effect of padding, truncating, and splitting the input sequences, see Sequence Padding, Truncation, and Splitting.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
| char
| string
SequencePaddingDirection
— Direction of padding or truncation
"right"
(default) | "left"
Direction of padding or truncation, specified as one of the following:
"right"
— Pad or truncate sequences on the right. The sequences start at the same time step and the software truncates or adds padding to the end of the sequences."left"
— Pad or truncate sequences on the left. The software truncates or adds padding to the start of the sequences so that the sequences end at the same time step.
Because recurrent layers process sequence data one time step at a time, when the recurrent
layer OutputMode
property is "last"
, any padding in
the final time steps can negatively influence the layer output. To pad or truncate sequence
data on the left, set the SequencePaddingDirection
option to "left"
.
For sequence-to-sequence neural networks (when the OutputMode
property is
"sequence"
for each recurrent layer), any padding in the first time
steps can negatively influence the predictions for the earlier time steps. To pad or
truncate sequence data on the right, set the SequencePaddingDirection
option to "right"
.
To learn more about the effect of padding, truncating, and splitting the input sequences, see Sequence Padding, Truncation, and Splitting.
SequencePaddingValue
— Value to pad sequences
0
(default) | scalar
Value by which to pad input sequences, specified as a scalar.
Do not pad sequences with NaN
, because doing so can propagate
errors throughout the neural network.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
ExecutionEnvironment
— Hardware resource for training neural network
"auto"
(default) | "cpu"
| "gpu"
| "multi-gpu"
| "parallel"
| "parallel-auto"
| "parallel-cpu"
| "parallel-gpu"
Hardware resource for training neural network, specified as one of these values:
Execution Environment | Hardware Resources Used |
---|---|
"auto" | Use a local GPU if one is available. Otherwise, use the local CPU. |
"cpu" | Use the local CPU. |
"gpu" | Use the local GPU. |
"multi-gpu" | Use multiple GPUs on one machine, using a local parallel pool based on your default cluster profile. If there is no current parallel pool, the software starts a parallel pool with pool size equal to the number of available GPUs. |
"parallel" | Use a local or remote parallel pool. If there is no current parallel pool, the software starts one using the default cluster profile. If the pool has access to GPUs, then only workers with a unique GPU perform training computation and excess workers become idle. If the pool does not have GPUs, then training takes place on all available CPU workers instead. |
"parallel-auto" |
|
"parallel-cpu" |
|
"parallel-gpu" |
|
The "gpu"
, "multi-gpu"
, "parallel"
, "parallel-auto"
, "parallel-cpu"
, and "parallel-gpu"
options require Parallel Computing Toolbox™. To use a GPU for deep learning, you must also have a supported GPU device. For information on supported devices, see GPU Computing Requirements (Parallel Computing Toolbox). If you choose one of these options and Parallel Computing Toolbox or a suitable GPU is not available, then the software returns an error.
For more information on when to use the different execution environments, see Scale Up Deep Learning in Parallel, on GPUs, and in the Cloud.
To see an improvement in performance when training in parallel, try scaling up the MiniBatchSize
and InitialLearnRate
training options by the number of GPUs.
When you train a network using the trainNetwork
function, the
"multi-gpu"
and "parallel"
options do not support
neural networks containing custom layers with state parameters or built-in layers that are
stateful at training time. For example:
recurrent layers such as
LSTMLayer
,BiLSTMLayer
, orGRULayer
objects when theSequenceLength
training option is a positive integerBatchNormalizationLayer
objects when theBatchNormalizationStatistics
training option is set to"moving"
The "multi-gpu"
,
"parallel"
,
"parallel-auto"
,
"parallel-cpu"
, and
"parallel-gpu"
options support
stochastic solvers only (when the solverName
argument is
"sgdm"
,
"adam"
, or
"rmsprop"
).
WorkerLoad
— Parallel worker load division
scalar from 0
to 1
| positive integer | numeric vector
Parallel worker load division between GPUs or CPUs, specified as one of the following:
Scalar from
0
to1
— Fraction of workers on each machine to use for neural network training computation. If you train the neural network using data in a mini-batch datastore with background dispatch enabled, then the remaining workers fetch and preprocess data in the background.Positive integer — Number of workers on each machine to use for neural network training computation. If you train the neural network using data in a mini-batch datastore with background dispatch enabled, then the remaining workers fetch and preprocess data in the background.
Numeric vector — Neural network training load for each worker in the parallel pool. For a vector
W
, workeri
gets a fractionW(i)/sum(W)
of the work (number of examples per mini-batch). If you train a neural network using data in a mini-batch datastore with background dispatch enabled, then you can assign a worker load of 0 to use that worker for fetching data in the background. The specified vector must contain one value per worker in the parallel pool.
If the parallel pool has access to GPUs, then workers without a unique GPU are never used for training computation. The default for pools with GPUs is to use all workers with a unique GPU for training computation, and the remaining workers for background dispatch. If the pool does not have access to GPUs and CPUs are used for training, then the default is to use one worker per machine for background data dispatch.
This option supports stochastic solvers only (when the solverName
argument is "sgdm"
, "adam"
, or
"rmsprop"
).
This option supports the trainNetwork
function only.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
DispatchInBackground
— Flag to enable background dispatch
0
(false
) (default) | 1
(true
)
Flag to enable background dispatch, specified as 0
(false
) or 1
(true
).
Background dispatch uses parallel workers to fetch and preprocess data from a datastore during training. Use this option when your mini-batches require significant preprocessing. For more information on when to use background dispatch, see Use Datastore for Parallel Training and Background Dispatching.
When DispatchInBackground
is set to true
, the
software opens a local parallel pool using the default profile, if a local pool is not
currently open. Non-local parallel pools are not supported.
Using this option requires Parallel Computing Toolbox. The input datastore must be subsettable or partitionable. To use this
option, custom datastores must implement the matlab.io.datastore.Subsettable
class.
This option supports stochastic solvers only (when the solverName
argument is "sgdm"
, "adam"
, or
"rmsprop"
).
This option does not support the trainnet
function when training in parallel.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
CheckpointPath
— Path for saving checkpoint neural networks
""
(default) | string scalar | character vector
Path for saving the checkpoint neural networks, specified as a string scalar or character vector.
If you do not specify a path (that is, you use the default
""
), then the software does not save any checkpoint neural networks.If you specify a path, then the software saves checkpoint neural networks to this path and assigns a unique name to each neural network. You can then load any checkpoint neural network and resume training from that neural network.
If the folder does not exist, then you must first create it before specifying the path for saving the checkpoint neural networks. If the path you specify does not exist, then the software throws an error.
For more information about saving neural network checkpoints, see Save Checkpoint Networks and Resume Training.
Data Types: char
| string
CheckpointFrequency
— Frequency of saving checkpoint neural networks
positive integer
Frequency of saving checkpoint neural networks, specified as a positive integer.
If solverName
is "lbfgs"
or CheckpointFrequencyUnit
is
"iteration"
, then the software
saves checkpoint neural networks every
CheckpointFrequency
iterations.
Otherwise, the software saves checkpoint neural networks
every CheckpointFrequency
epochs.
When solverName
is
"sgdm"
,
"adam"
, or
"rmsprop"
, the default value is
1
. When
solverName
is
"lbfgs"
, default value is
30
.
This option only has an effect when
CheckpointPath
is
nonempty.
Data Types: single
| double
| int8
| int16
| int32
| int64
| uint8
| uint16
| uint32
| uint64
CheckpointFrequencyUnit
— Checkpoint frequency unit
"epoch"
(default) | "iteration"
Checkpoint frequency unit, specified as "epoch"
or "iteration"
.
If CheckpointFrequencyUnit
is "epoch"
, then the software
saves checkpoint neural networks every CheckpointFrequency
epochs.
If CheckpointFrequencyUnit
is "iteration"
, then the
software saves checkpoint neural networks every
CheckpointFrequency
iterations.
This option only has an effect when CheckpointPath
is nonempty.
This option supports stochastic solvers only (when the solverName
argument is "sgdm"
, "adam"
, or
"rmsprop"
).
Output Arguments
options
— Training options
TrainingOptionsSGDM
| TrainingOptionsRMSProp
| TrainingOptionsADAM
| TrainingOptionsLBFGS
Training options, returned as a TrainingOptionsSGDM
, TrainingOptionsRMSProp
, TrainingOptionsADAM
, or TrainingOptionsLBFGS
object. To train a neural
network, use the training options as an input argument to the
trainNetwork
or
trainnet
function.
TrainingOptionsLBFGS
objects support the
trainnet
function only.
If solverName
is "sgdm"
,
"rmsprop"
, "adam"
,
or "lbfgs"
, then the training options are
returned as a TrainingOptionsSGDM
,
TrainingOptionsRMSProp
,
TrainingOptionsADAM
, or
TrainingOptionsLBFGS
object,
respectively.
Tips
For most deep learning tasks, you can use a pretrained neural network and adapt it to your own data. For an example showing how to use transfer learning to retrain a convolutional neural network to classify a new set of images, see Train Deep Learning Network to Classify New Images. Alternatively, you can create and train neural networks from scratch using the
trainnet
,trainNetwork
, andtrainingOptions
functions.If the
trainingOptions
function does not provide the training options that you need for your task, then you can create a custom training loop using automatic differentiation. To learn more, see Define Deep Learning Network for Custom Training Loops.
Algorithms
Initial Weights and Biases
For convolutional and fully connected layers, the initialization for the weights and biases
are given by the WeightsInitializer
and
BiasInitializer
properties of the layers,
respectively. For examples showing how to change the initialization for the
weights and biases, see Specify Initial Weights and Biases in Convolutional Layer and
Specify Initial Weights and Biases in Fully Connected Layer.
Stochastic Gradient Descent
The standard gradient descent algorithm updates the network parameters (weights and biases) to minimize the loss function by taking small steps at each iteration in the direction of the negative gradient of the loss,
where is the iteration number, is the learning rate, is the parameter vector, and is the loss function. In the standard gradient descent algorithm, the gradient of the loss function, , is evaluated using the entire training set, and the standard gradient descent algorithm uses the entire data set at once.
By contrast, at each iteration the stochastic gradient descent algorithm evaluates the gradient and updates the parameters using a subset of the training data. A different subset, called a mini-batch, is used at each iteration. The full pass of the training algorithm over the entire training set using mini-batches is one epoch. Stochastic gradient descent is stochastic because the parameter updates computed using a mini-batch is a noisy estimate of the parameter update that would result from using the full data set.
Stochastic Gradient Descent with Momentum
The stochastic gradient descent algorithm can oscillate along the path of steepest descent towards the optimum. Adding a momentum term to the parameter update is one way to reduce this oscillation [2]. The stochastic gradient descent with momentum (SGDM) update is
where the learning rate α and the momentum value determine the contribution of the previous gradient step to the current iteration.
Root Mean Square Propagation
Stochastic gradient descent with momentum uses a single learning rate for all the parameters. Other optimization algorithms seek to improve network training by using learning rates that differ by parameter and can automatically adapt to the loss function being optimized. Root mean square propagation (RMSProp) is one such algorithm. It keeps a moving average of the element-wise squares of the parameter gradients,
β2 is the squared gradient decay factor of the moving average. Common values of the decay rate are 0.9, 0.99, and 0.999. The corresponding averaging lengths of the squared gradients equal 1/(1-β2), that is, 10, 100, and 1000 parameter updates, respectively. The RMSProp algorithm uses this moving average to normalize the updates of each parameter individually,
where the division is performed element-wise. Using RMSProp effectively decreases the learning rates of parameters with large gradients and increases the learning rates of parameters with small gradients. ɛ is a small constant added to avoid division by zero.
Adaptive Moment Estimation
Adaptive moment estimation (Adam) [4] uses a parameter update that is similar to RMSProp, but with an added momentum term. It keeps an element-wise moving average of both the parameter gradients and their squared values,
The β1 and β2 decay rates are the gradient decay and squared gradient decay factors, respectively. Adam uses the moving averages to update the network parameters as
The value α is the learning rate. If gradients over many iterations are similar, then using a moving average of the gradient enables the parameter updates to pick up momentum in a certain direction. If the gradients contain mostly noise, then the moving average of the gradient becomes smaller, and so the parameter updates become smaller too. The full Adam update also includes a mechanism to correct a bias the appears in the beginning of training. For more information, see [4].
Limited-Memory BFGS
The L-BFGS algorithm [5] is a quasi-Newton method that approximates the Broyden-Fletcher-Goldfarb-Shanno (BFGS) algorithm. The L-BFGS algorithm is best suited for small networks and data sets that you can process in a single batch.
The algorithm updates learnable parameters W at iteration k+1 using the update step given by
where Wk denotes the weights at iteration k, is the learning rate at iteration k, Bk is an approximation of the Hessian matrix at iteration k, and denotes the gradients of the loss with respect to the learnable parameters at iteration k.
The L-BFGS algorithm computes the matrix-vector product directly. The algorithm does not require computing the inverse of Bk.
To save memory, the L-BFGS algorithm does not store and invert the dense Hessian matrix B. Instead, the algorithm uses the approximation , where m is the history size, the inverse Hessian factor is a scalar, and I is the identity matrix, and stores the scalar inverse Hessian factor only. The algorithm updates the inverse Hessian factor at each step.
To compute the matrix-vector product directly, the L-BFGS algorithm uses this recursive algorithm:
Set , where m is the history size.
For :
Let , where and are the step and gradient differences for iteration , respectively.
Set , where is derived from , , and the gradients of the loss with respect to the loss function. For more information, see [5].
Return .
Gradient Clipping
If the gradients increase in magnitude exponentially, then the training is unstable and can diverge within a few iterations. This "gradient explosion" is indicated by a training loss that goes to NaN
or Inf
. Gradient clipping helps prevent gradient explosion by stabilizing the training at higher learning rates and in the presence of outliers [3]. Gradient clipping enables networks to be trained faster, and does not usually impact the accuracy of the learned task.
There are two types of gradient clipping.
Norm-based gradient clipping rescales the gradient based on a threshold, and does not change the direction of the gradient. The
"l2norm"
and"global-l2norm"
values ofGradientThresholdMethod
are norm-based gradient clipping methods.Value-based gradient clipping clips any partial derivative greater than the threshold, which can result in the gradient arbitrarily changing direction. Value-based gradient clipping can have unpredictable behavior, but sufficiently small changes do not cause the network to diverge. The
"absolute-value"
value ofGradientThresholdMethod
is a value-based gradient clipping method.
L2 Regularization
Adding a regularization term for the weights to the loss function is one way to reduce overfitting [1], [2]. The regularization term is also called weight decay. The loss function with the regularization term takes the form
where is the weight vector, is the regularization factor (coefficient), and the regularization function is
Note that the biases are not regularized [2]. You can specify the regularization factor by using the L2Regularization
training option. You can also specify different regularization factors for different layers and parameters. For more information, see Set Up Parameters in Convolutional and Fully Connected Layers.
The loss function that the software uses for network training includes the regularization term. However, the loss value displayed in the command window and training progress plot during training is the loss on the data only and does not include the regularization term.
References
[1] Bishop, C. M. Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning. Springer, New York, NY, 2006.
[2] Murphy, K. P. Machine Learning: A Probabilistic Perspective. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2012.
[3] Pascanu, R., T. Mikolov, and Y. Bengio. "On the difficulty of training recurrent neural networks". Proceedings of the 30th International Conference on Machine Learning. Vol. 28(3), 2013, pp. 1310–1318.
[4] Kingma, Diederik, and Jimmy Ba. "Adam: A method for stochastic optimization." arXiv preprint arXiv:1412.6980 (2014).
[5] Liu, Dong C., and Jorge Nocedal. "On the limited memory BFGS method for large scale optimization." Mathematical programming 45, no. 1 (August 1989): 503-528. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01589116.
Version History
Introduced in R2016aR2023b: Train neural network using L-BFGS solver
Train a neural network using the L-BFGS solver by specifying solverName
as "lbfgs"
. The L-BFGS algorithm is best suited for small networks and data sets that you can process in a single batch. To customize the L-BFGS solver, use the L-BFGS Solver Options
properties.
This option supports the trainnet
function only.
R2023b: Specify input and target data formats
Specify the input and target data formats using the InputDataFormats
and TargetDataFormats
options, respectively.
This option supports the trainnet
function only.
R2023b: Train neural network in parallel using only CPU or only GPU resources
Train a neural network in parallel using specific hardware resources by specifying the
ExecutionEnvironment
as "parallel-cpu"
or
"parallel-gpu"
.
This option supports the trainnet
function only.
R2023b: BatchNormalizationStatistics
default is "auto"
Starting in R2023b, the BatchNormalizationStatistics
training option default
value is "auto"
.
This change does not affect the behavior of the function. If you have code that checks the BatchNormalizationStatistics
property, then update your code to account for the "auto"
option.
R2022b: trainNetwork
pads mini-batches to length of longest sequence before splitting when you specify SequenceLength
training option as an integer
Starting in R2022b, when you train a neural network with sequence data using the trainNetwork
function and the SequenceLength
option is an integer, the software pads sequences to the
length of the longest sequence in each mini-batch and then splits the sequences into
mini-batches with the specified sequence length. If SequenceLength
does
not evenly divide the sequence length of the mini-batch, then the last split mini-batch has
a length shorter than SequenceLength
. This behavior prevents the neural
network training on time steps that contain only padding values.
In previous releases, the software pads mini-batches of sequences to have a length matching the nearest multiple of SequenceLength
that is greater than or equal to the mini-batch length and then splits the data. To reproduce this behavior, use a custom training loop and implement this behavior when you preprocess mini-batches of data.
R2018b: ValidationPatience
training option default is Inf
Starting in R2018b, the default value of the ValidationPatience
training option is Inf
, which means that automatic stopping via validation is turned off. This behavior prevents the training from stopping before sufficiently learning from the data.
In previous versions, the default value is 5
. To reproduce this behavior, set the ValidationPatience
option to 5
.
R2018b: Different file name for checkpoint networks
Starting in R2018b, when saving checkpoint networks, the software assigns
file names beginning with net_checkpoint_
. In previous
versions, the software assigns file names beginning with
convnet_checkpoint_
.
If you have code that saves and loads checkpoint networks, then update your code to load files with the new name.
See Also
trainnet
| trainNetwork
| analyzeNetwork
| Deep Network
Designer
Topics
- Create Simple Deep Learning Neural Network for Classification
- Transfer Learning Using Pretrained Network
- Resume Training from Checkpoint Network
- Deep Learning with Big Data on CPUs, GPUs, in Parallel, and on the Cloud
- Specify Layers of Convolutional Neural Network
- Set Up Parameters and Train Convolutional Neural Network
- Define Custom Training Loops, Loss Functions, and Networks
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